The article "Modification of cognitive behavior and organizational culture" shows how organizational culture is the focus and barr...
The article "Modification of cognitive behavior and organizational culture" shows how organizational culture is the focus and barrier to improve organizational performance (Boan, 2006). A research design that examines organizational culture to promote the improvement of medical care develops an intervention to improve organizational teams. The intervention is a training program based on models of cognitive psychology of the organizational culture.
The modification of cognitive behavior or CBM integrates behavioral technology, social learning theories and cognitive psychology. CBM focuses on a discourse and a narrative. At CBM, change begins with the observation of behavior through awareness and attention. This change begins with the narrative story in which the subject develops his experience. It is possible to reconstruct the perception of the participant and, therefore, reshape their behavior. The reconstructed narrative is made of new behaviors, skills associated with these behaviors and barriers or supports in the environment to resist or help with the behaviors. Both personal and organizational reality are built by the individual. Organizational culture and personal reality do not exist apart from perception and behavior. The consultant becomes co-constructivist. The consultant must understand the culture of the topic and the existing narrative about how the organization works. The narrative is a shared mental model that develops from the experience of the members of the organization and communicates the values of the organization. The consultant helps clients rethink events. Events are not failures, but understandable in the context of the environment. All organizations have cultures that introduce biases in the perceptions created by individuals. The consultant performs a functional evaluation. Behavior change must be supported by structures. It is necessary to change the structures that are barriers to an effective constructed narrative. The consultant helps the client develop the necessary skills. The consultant uses modeling, training, training and education to help the client. Effective behaviors are interpersonal behaviors, communication and decision making. The consultant takes advantage of the key relationships. Leadership makes a difference and has control over corporate understanding of how things are done in the particular organization. The consultant reduces complexity. Change is easier with micro equipment in which there is control over the environment. Organizations could include subcultures that compete for influence over the organization. To summarize, this article proposes a model that integrates internal cognitive processes with environmental functions for advantageous organizational interventions. The individual is the architect of his environment. The person provokes and responds to the environment. Culture is essential to achieve organizational change and improve medical care. Change agents are identified and the selected teams receive intervention. These interventions begin with evaluation training agents followed by a dialogue to clarify perceptions and changes in interaction. On a larger scale, interventions will be prepared for testing through systematic application to external companies. The tests will validate the model and clarify the relationship between the intervention components and clarify the explanation of the intervention methods. Having mastered organizational psychology and having consulted for Fortune 40 companies, this model seems very applicable and promising for companies of any size.
The article "Connecting and separating mentalities: culture as situated cognition" shows how people perceive significant integers and then separate the parts (Oyserman et al., 2009). There are differences between countries as to how a goal is perceived for the first time. The proposed model of culture as situated cognition explains these differences due to a collective or individual mentality. Eight studies show that when the cultural mentality and the demands of tasks are congruent, the easiest tasks are performed faster and the most difficult tasks are performed with greater precision. There are homogeneous effects on the geographical location, race, task and sensory mode. This article examines the difference in the initial focus of attention. The hypothesis of this study says that societies differ in the probability that the mind first focuses on separate points or connected relationships. Societies differ in their levels of individualism and collectivism and these differences have consequences based on differences in values, self-concepts, styles of emotional expression, relationships and cognitive processes. Distal differences in philosophy, religion, language and history could create differences in cognitive processes and ways of defining the self. The culture model as situated cognition says that cognition is situated and is pragmatic. This model predicts that cultural mentalities influence the content and process. This article hypothesizes that the prepared cultural mentality facilitates the performance of cognitive tasks that are best performed with cognitive procedures consistent with the mentality, in all societies and sensory modes, and after speed and precision compensations. This article demonstrates the effects of cultural mindset prepared using a pronoun circle task. This study also demonstrates parallel effects in different societies. Again, it demonstrates the effects on tasks using different sensory modes and replicated tasks. In addition, it demonstrates systematic speed and precision compensation. Finally, it demonstrates the effects of American ethnic groups on academic tasks, such as standardized tests. This study uses the technique of priming the pronoun circle task, because the content does not include terms that are the hypothetical processes that should be indicated. Demonstrating effects on the process indicated by pronouns underlines the concept that cultural mentalities are infused into the process. The use of the pronoun task conforms to the principles of situated cognition that say that cognition is context sensitive. Tail probability tests are used to assess the importance of preparing cultural mentalities. Moderation by gender and race is tested using two-tailed probability tests.
The results support the culture model as situated cognition. The model implies that the use of language, self-concept, objectives and motivation can indicate mentality because any psychologically important aspect of the situation that is relevant to the action should matter. These effects are mediated by changes in self-construction. This study suggests that a more prudent model is to predict that individual and collective mentalities can be directly indicated and that is not necessarily through self-concept. The characteristics of the situation can directly indicate a mentality, connecting or separating cognitive objectives. The procedures and objectives indicated may indicate outstanding self-construction.
International comparison cannot isolate the role of specific components of culture. Research on chronic differences in cognitive processes shows that the Chinese are more holistic, see the big picture, and the Japanese are more relativistic than the Americans, who are more analytical and absolute in their perceptual judgment. The findings of this article suggest that the effects are due to differences in content, cognitive process or objectives indicated at the time. Participants in various societies acquire the procedural repertoires associated with individualism and collectivism. These active components of culture influence cognitive content and the use of important cognitive procedures. This study demonstrates that the effects of preparing individual and collective mentality occur across geographical boundaries. These results suggest that cultural mentalities matter in a similar way in all societies and within heterogeneous societies.
Within heterogeneous societies, there may be a mismatch between the cultural mindset that is based on the context and the mindset that best suits the task at hand. A collective mentality signal may be relevant for some examined, but not for others, due to small changes in context. Other signals may also matter. Within an American context, the context of the test can make minority social or racial class identities come to light, reducing social objectives and provoking a collective mentality. When a separate and separate mindset is appropriate for the task at hand, putting a collective mindset undermines performance.
Cultural mentalities can be changed. The mentalities are malleable to changes in the pragmatic meaning. Small interventions can produce important changes. My interpretation of these studies is that quantum physics and spiritual practices also demonstrate and teach similar or identical principles. I agree with them and do my best to practice them daily, for an increasingly better lifestyle
The article "Spacing effects of multiple exposures in memory: implications for advertising programming" shows that the spacing effect is the fact that longer intervals between exposures result in better learning than shorter intervals (Sawyer et al., 2009). This article offers empirical generalizations or EGs about the size of the spacing effect and the conditions that make the difference. The EGs in this article are based on the results of a meta-analysis of laboratory experiments in cognitive psychology and marketing.
Repeated exposures are effective in terms of learning. The spacing effect is an indisputable phenomenon. Research has found that the spacing effect is valid for many different types of stimuli. The space between intermediate exposures of many other stimuli improves the memory of syllables, words, sentences, images and meaningless faces. The effect has been demonstrated for repeated instructions in the classroom and the learning of science and math concepts, vocabulary and word processing.
This article is a meta-analysis of 248 controlled repeated exposure experiments on the spacing effect with sufficient statistical information to calculate effect sizes. The average time between the last exposure and the memory measurement varies up to 21 days. Most studies evaluate the schedules of two exhibitions. Respondents are between 4 and 69 years old. The different variables include the type of learning, the form, the meaning, the familiarity, the complexity, the type of stimuli, the relation of the memory signals, the incidental or intentional processing, the means of presentation of the stimulus, the complexity and similarity of the material involved and memory performance. The results show that the spacing effect is statistically significant.
There is EG about differences in the size of the spacing effect for different types of stimuli exposed. All empirical evidence implies that scheduling repeated exposures more distributed over a period of time produces better memory than the same number of exposures grouped together. Advertisers should try to space exposures over a period provided that this time period does not exceed what is needed for the retention of some type of memory trace from the previous exposure.
Another EG is that the recovery theory is consistent with the pattern of meta-analysis results. This theory assumes that effective media schedules encourage the elaborate processing of an advertisement during initial exposures to improve the subsequent recovery of those exposures. The common schedule with an initial flight of 30 commercials at the beginning of an advertising campaign followed by 15 compressions of these commercials could produce a better memory for the content of the commercials than two shorter flights of longer commercials.
Another EG is that an effective repetition strategy could obtain incidental processing during some exhibitions of advertising material and intentional processing during other exposures. An effective repetition strategy could be to alternate spaced exposures in media that vary in terms of participation. The media involved include print or Internet sites sought by consumers, while less involved media include product streams and locations.
Another EG is that, in addition to using different media, distributed exposures of different types of messages that encourage different levels of processing involved are recommended. The schedules could be more effective if they included messages that differ in terms of complexity, duration, hard sale versus soft sale, and closed and open. Semantically complex ads benefit more from multiple spaced exposures than simple ones.
In the study, the space effect is strong for oral stimuli compared to stimuli presented only visually or simultaneously in both formats. Radio is a medium processed on a low participation basis. In addition, novel stimuli benefit more from the spacing effect than family members. The investigation reveals a greater effectiveness to increase the advertising weight of a new brand than for known brands. Research reveals better results. Again, the meaning of repeated stimuli influences the size of the spacing effect. Less significant stimuli benefit more from distributed exposures than more significant stimuli. Finally, the processing of repeated exposures benefits from spaced schedules rather than incidental processing. Cue processing is like the processing involved. Purchase situations with greater participation could benefit more from spaced schedules. More semantically complex content benefits more from spacing than less difficult content. It is appropriate to space more complex content, such as print ads with a relatively long copy. It would be less disadvantageous for a more massive campaign for simpler ads.
The spacing effect is in repeated symbols and images, words, sentences and other educational materials. The variables that make a difference in the laboratory offer the best predictions about advertising. Advertisers should try to space exposures over a period provided that this time period does not exceed what is needed for the retention of some type of memory trace from the previous exposure. Multiple spaced exposures produce more learning than repeated exposures with short intervals. Longer intervals between exposures result in better learning than shorter intervals. To conclude, my interpretation of this article is positive. The next time I spend money, time and energy to advertise my business, I will implement these principles. I think these principles are applicable to internet marketing.
The article "Understanding how cognitive psychology can inform and improve vocabulary acquisition in Spanish in high school classrooms" shows how educators daily deal with the dynamic functions of the human brain (Erbes et al., 2010). This empirical study investigates how information on human memory in the field of cognitive psychology can be applied specifically to the teaching of Spanish vocabulary in high school classrooms. Research on human memory can improve vocabulary teaching in high school Spanish classes.
The field of cognitive psychology lays the foundation in teacher preparation because all future teachers begin the path to teacher certification with courses in cognitive development. In schools, teachers regularly interact with students in the classrooms where students receive, process, store and retrieve information using their brains. The brain can receive and store information in multiple different ways. Through numerous rich sensory input mechanisms, the brain receives fragments of information and stores them carefully in its short-term, work or long-term memory. People could connect their learning abilities with instructional objectives to unite educational and cognitive psychology. The brain can retain and recover knowledge using its different memory systems.
Foreign language classes have presented declarative knowledge that memorize information. There are different types of brain memory functions that can be used to help students retain and retrieve information learned in a classroom. The teaching of foreign languages is an example of the implementation of teaching methodologies that do not take advantage of the long-term memory capabilities of the brain. The routine essay is implemented in the school's foreign language classrooms and is a conventional technique that mainly involves continuous repetition. Elaborative essays link new information with familiar material. Through the essay, students extract the meaning of the new information and then link it to pre-existing material that is already in memory. The more associations, the more likely you are to remember the new information later. Using this method, people tend to remember significant material better than arbitrary facts.
Common strategies for teaching vocabulary in foreign languages included the focus of keywords, the use of real-life things, the association of personal connections with the semantic structures of words, memory essays, the use of pairs of images and Words and vocabulary essay with card images. In this study, student populations reflect upper middle class communities. The two classes are chosen according to the teacher's permission and the class schedule. Each class consists of an average of 25 students. All participating students complete a previous survey, are present for scripted lessons and take the six subsequent tests. The students are learning Spanish for the first time. The data analyzed for this study included a total of 78 students. The goal of each lesson is for students to learn 15 words of food vocabulary in Spanish. In the study, the traditional lesson mainly involves the repetition of memory. In this case, the teacher has the students repeat each word in Spanish twice along with their translation into English after the teacher. Then, the teacher continues with an activity where students repeat each word in Spanish orally again after the teacher models the pronunciation of the word, and then the students write the vocabulary word under their visual image on a worksheet.
The nontraditional lesson involves deeper processing with the use of real foods and an exercise that encourages students to consider whether they like food or not. Then, the teacher picks up a real food from each vocabulary word and asks the students to repeat. On the worksheet, students check the box to indicate a pleasant or unpleasant connection with a particular vocabulary word. High reliability between assessors is determined with a Pearson product-time correlation (PMCC). Microsoft Excel and SPSS are used to perform statistical analyzes, examining the effects of the two test-based teaching methods.
The results show a significant multivariate effect and significant effects within the subjects. Evidence of the effects between subjects reveals a significant school effect. The memory for these vocabulary words is maximum immediately after the nontraditional lesson, followed by a loss of memory after 3 and 24 days after the lesson. Exhibitions of traditional and non-traditional lessons produce the highest scores when the test is immediately after the lesson. Subsequent tests reveal progressively lower scores. These results indicate that the memory for this vocabulary word is greater after an exposition of non-traditional teaching methods, even 3 days and 24 days later.
To conclude, this study seems very interesting to me. I am not surprised at the results. My first language is Italian and sometimes I teach it to private students. In my teaching, I implement neurolinguistic programming principles, which involve all the senses. For example, I take the students for a walk and make them touch certain things in the environment and I create a concrete and experiential association with the words and their sounds, surface or touch or kinesthetic, smell, color and shape. I notice that my students are likely to retain words better when I present these practical experiences, than when we sit at the table at my desk in the office. They taught me English since I was 7 years old, but from an Italian teacher with an accent and studying British literature, like Shakespeare. I am not surprised that when I arrived in the United States I was and still speak English with an Italian accent. Nor is it surprising that my English was not conversational at the time, since the old Shakespearean language was not useful. I would like to see more scientific research on the differences of learning foreign languages at different ages, to show when the brain is more predisposed to learn foreign words. I guess it's at an early age.
References
Boan, D. (2006). Modification of cognitive behavior and organizational culture. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 58 (1), 51-61.
Erbes, S., Folkerts, M., Gergis, C., Pederson, S. and Stivers, H. (2010). Understand how cognitive psychology can inform and improve the acquisition of Spanish vocabulary in high school classrooms. Journal of educational psychology, 37 (2), 120-132.
Matlin, M. (2008) Cognition New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Oyserman, D., Sorensen, N., Reber, R. and Xiaohua Chen, S. (2009). Connection and separation of mentalities: culture as situated cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97 (2), 217-235.
Sawyer, A., Noel, H. and Janiszewski, C. (2009). The spacing effects of multiple exposures in memory: implications for advertising programming. Journal of Advertising Research, 49 (2), 193-197.
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